REFLEXIONES

June 12, 2025

PAOLO AND LAURA MORA: TRUST IN CONSERVATION

MIGUEL ÁNGEL CORZO

Miguel Ángel Corzo’s international career spans arts, education, culture, and sustainable development. In Mexico, he held key governmental and academic roles, including , Technical Advisor in the Ministry of Human Settlement, Undersecretary of Tourism and Founding Director of Academic Affairs at Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana. He later directed the Getty Conservation Institute in Los Angeles, overseeing cultural heritage initiatives in over 40 countries. He coordinated the exhibition Mexico: Splendors of Thirty Centuries at the Metropolitan Museum. He was President of the University of the Arts in Philadelphia and founder of the Global Alliance for Conservation. President Bill Clinton appointed him to the Presidential Advisory Committee on Cultural Property.

Corzo has advised the United Nations, UNESCO and led major cultural projects in France, Egypt, Senegal, Tanzania, and Mexico. His education includes studies at UCLA, the Technical University of Munich, and a Fulbright Fellowship at Harvard.

He has received numerous honors, such as the UNESCO Patron of the Arts medal, the Gabarrón Conservation International Award, honorary doctorates and governmental distinctions. His body of work includes 16 international museum exhibitions, 21 books, and 18 documentaries focused on art and culture. Currently, he serves as an international consultant and speaker on cultural heritage

ABSTRACT

The conservation project of Queen Nefertari’s tomb, led by Paolo and Laura Mora, was a landmark effort blending scientific rigor, technical expertise, artistic sensitivity, and profound mentorship. Paolo brought thoughtful leadership to the overall conservation effort, while Laura offered elegant techniques and insightful teaching. Together, they mentored “Il Team,” a close-knit group of international conservators and trainees, together with scientists, fostering a spirit of excellence, discipline, and camaraderie over eight campaigns from 1987 to 1992.

The project involved emergency stabilization and long-term conservation of fragile wall paintings, which suffered from geological instability and required advanced techniques and deep historical understanding. Through meticulous analysis, the team uncovered traces of ancient artists’ processes, including pigments, tools, and even thumbprints—tangible links to their humanity.

Paolo and Laura extended their impact through global training. Their legacy is defined not only by technical brilliance but by their humility, mentorship, and devotion to preserving cultural heritage. Revered worldwide, they influenced countless professionals and institutions. Their aspiration was always to make their conservation work invisible—so the ancient artworks could speak for themselves, untouched by time. Their names endure as paragons of authenticity, integrity, excellence, and grace in the conservation world.

KEY WORDS :Nefertari Mora Conservation Mentoring Trust

TRUST IN CONSERVATION

“That day we had just retired from the Istituto—the very day we received the call. After so many years of uninterrupted work, we had resolved to take a well-earned respite,” Laura Mora recalled years later “but after the call, Paolo and I spoke, and we decided to explore the nature of this new challenge.”(Rotondi,1997)

Laura was referring to the beginning of their involvement in the final conservation of the wall paintings of the Tomb of Nefertari—an undertaking that would become a defining chapter in their careers, and of many others.

In September 1985, the Egyptian Antiquities Organization (EAO) and the Getty Conservation Institute (GCI) entered into consultations for a collaborative program that underscored their shared commitment to the preservation of cultural heritage. Very quickly, both institutions agreed in principle to address the complex challenges posed by the conservation of wall paintings from the Pharaonic period. Their attention soon turned to the magnificent tomb of Queen Nefertari.

From the outset, it was understood that the deterioration of the tomb’s wall paintings presented formidable challenges. Any serious effort to conserve them would demand a rigorous, interdisciplinary approach. To that end, a team of specialists was assembled to explore in depth the condition of the tomb and consider a comprehensive strategy—while also determining whether such a strategy was feasible.

Among the experts under consideration, one name – or rather two - stood out as essential: two specialists in the conservation of wall paintings: Paolo and Laura Mora. Their international reputation was unmatched, and there was unanimous agreement that involving them in the project would significantly advance its potential. The only remaining step was to contact them and gauge their interest in participating in the proposed scientific consultation, to be held jointly under the auspices of the EAO and the GCI

In early 1986, preparations began for a pivotal meeting in Cairo later that year. It was widely agreed that the discussions surrounding the conservation of Nefertari’s tomb paintings would be marked by an unprecedented level of methodological rigor. This initiative presented an opportunity to pioneer a new model for conservation. While conservators had previously worked on wall paintings in other Egyptian tombs and archaeological sites around the world, there had, to our knowledge, never been an integrated, multidisciplinary effort of this magnitude. The stage was set for a bold new direction in conservation—and for Paolo and Laura Mora to play a central role in shaping it.

This was a singular opportunity to consider, in a holistic and thoughtful manner, the many perspectives that experts from diverse disciplines deemed essential for such an undertaking. The result was the gathering of an international group of specialists in Egypt, where they were invited to examine the tomb and the wall paintings of Nefertari from their various vantage points and, through collective deliberation, propose the most appropriate course of action for the conservation of these extraordinary works. Paolo and Laura Mora embraced this approach with great enthusiasm. They fully understood the aims of the organizing institutions and responded positively to the vision of a multidisciplinary team addressing the many facets of the project. They generously offered their expertise to help shape the final proposal.

Although I had never previously met Paolo and Laura in person, their names were, of course, well known to me—as they were to anyone involved in the conservation of cultural heritage. Their reputation preceded them, always spoken of with reverence, always mentioned as preeminent figures in the field of wall paintings, frescoes, and significant conservation endeavors. Over the years, I had come to know many prominent names in the world of heritage preservation, but theirs was always among the most respected. We felt immensely fortunate that Paolo and Laura had agreed to join our initial discussions.

I met Paolo and Laura Mora in Rome, prior to that inaugural scientific meeting in Cairo. Paolo, with his customary generosity, collected me from my hotel and drove us to their beautiful home on the Via Appia Antica, before hosting me for dinner nearby, at the aptly named Ristorante L’Archeologia. As we made our way to their residence, Paolo pointed out the Mausoleum of Cecilia Metella—a landmark, he insisted jovially, would be useful as a reference for my future taxi rides to their home. That was Paolo: always thoughtful, always seeing ahead. In the years that followed, I would return to their beautiful residence and splendid gardens with eager anticipation and fond recollection of that first encounter.

In September 1986, the planned meeting was convened in Cairo by the two organizing institutions. The invited scientists were tasked with conducting an initial assessment of the tomb of Nefertari. A number of key areas had already been identified for study, among others: the geological context of the tomb, potential biological activity—including investigations of microflora, the tomb’s microclimatic conditions, colorimetric assessments, pigment and plaster analyses, non-destructive testing, photographic documentation, and most crucially, a comprehensive condition survey.

Following the meeting, this distinguished assembly of scientists and specialists, from Egypt, the U.S., Italy, Japan, Germany, Mexico, Spain, proceeded to the tomb to commence the first phase of their work. September in the Valley of the Queens marks the waning of summer; rainfall is virtually absent, the air is parched and the sun unrelenting, with daytime temperatures hovering around 38°C. At the time, the only available shelter near the tomb was a modest van, where the entire scientific team, along with staff from the EAO and the GCI, waited patiently in the stifling heat. The van’s weak air conditioner offered scant relief.

Professor Hideo Arai of the Tokyo National Research Institute of Cultural Property and Guillermo Aldana, the mission photographer, were the first to enter the tomb. Their task was to establish the baseline biological assessments and to produce the initial photographic documentation that would support the forthcoming conservation efforts. The photo shows the salt efflorescence in the tomb. The crystals have pushed the plaster support, or the paint layer, or both, profoundly affecting the images in the wall paintings. With his characteristic calm and patience, Paolo—alongside the rest of the team—endured the oppressive heat within the van, waiting stoically for hours while the first steps of this complex, demanding, and vital project began.

Once the base line of biological activity and the beginning of the photographic record were complete, the team was finally able to step out of the van and enter the tomb for the first time. Two years of difficult and detailed negotiations - and the meticulous development of protocols for the work - were at last bearing fruit. At that moment, no one in the group could have imagined how the project would unfold over the next six years.

In early 1987, Paolo and Laura traveled to Los Angeles for consultations at the GCI. On their return to Italy, they made a stop in Washington, D.C., to consult with Bernard Rabin, a distinguished American conservator whom they had first met in 1957, when he undertook an internship at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. Rabin had dedicated his career to wall paintings and frescoes, returning to Italy to assist in the aftermath of the 1966 flood in Florence and the earthquake in Friuli. He had spent more than a decade working on the murals of the U.S. Capitol Building, including a fresco by Constantino Brumidi. Rabin had invited Paolo and Laura to view the Brumidi fresco, which they did. It was a rewarding visit, though unfortunately Paolo experienced a medical issue while in Washington that required urgent attention.

I visited them to ensure they were well and to offer any assistance they might need, which they graciously appreciated. They assured me they were recovering and planned to continue their journey back to Rome in a few days. During that visit, our conversations about Nefertari continued, and our friendship deepened.

I shared with them a conversation I had recently had with Agustín Espinosa, then Director of Conservation at Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), and one of Latin America’s most esteemed conservation specialists.

In 1962, Agustín was a young student enrolled in a course on mural detachment at the Centro Internacional de Conservación in Mexico, a program established by UNESCO. Students from across Latin America had gathered to take part, and the instructors were none other than Paolo and Laura Mora. Agustín remembered them warmly—and still does.

Paolo’s lectures and demonstrations in Mexico emphasized conservation techniques such as strappo and spago, and included field visits to the wall paintings of Teotihuacán and Cholula. Laura focused on the aesthetic dimensions of conservation. What impressed Agustín most was their unwavering commitment to preserving the authenticity of the artworks. They placed particular emphasis on respecting the patina, on thoughtful color reintegration, and on the use of the rigattino technique as part of a holistic conservation approach.

Paolo and Laura’s engagement with this group of Latin American students served to “radiate their knowledge across Latin America—they flooded South America with their expertise,” Agustín recalled. He remembered with deep affection the extraordinary attention these two eminent professionals gave to their students, down to the smallest detail. Even today, nearly sixty years later, he speaks with wonder: “Their attention to students was astonishing. Paolo took the time to teach me how to sharpen my scalpels. Can you imagine? Such a distinguished international conservator, personally showing a student the most basic instrumental techniques.”(Espinosa,2025)

Paolo and Laura would go on to teach for many years, sharing their expertise across the globe, with generosity, empathy and elegant care.

In 1962, they had traveled to Egypt as part of a commission tasked with exploring methods for conserving the temples of Abu Simbel in Nubia. It was during this mission that they first encountered the tomb of Queen Nefertari. In later recollections, Laura often spoke of the profound impression the wall paintings had made on her—imbuing her with a deep sense of admiration and what she described as “great love.” They would return to visit the tomb on subsequent journeys in 1969 and 1978.

Although the tomb had been discovered by Ernesto Schiaparelli in 1906, the condition of its wall paintings presented an immense conservation challenge from the outset. Over the years, several proposals had been put forward, but the Egyptian authorities wisely chose to defer any intervention until a thoroughly reliable and methodologically sound plan could be developed. That was the daunting task now before the team of specialists assembled by the GCI and the EAO.

From the earliest scientific meetings, it became evident that the ultimate responsibility for the conservation of Nefertari’s wall paintings would rest with Paolo and Laura.

As Laura was unable to attend the initial meetings due to prior commitments, Paolo assumed the critical role of ensuring that all studies, analyses, monitoring, examinations, and experimental research would be conducted within a framework that safeguarded the integrity of the paintings. Moreover, it was his duty to guide the scientific work toward meaningful outcomes that would directly inform and support the forthcoming conservation treatment. In the photograph Paolo is explaining to the author the array of conservation problems in the tomb.

One can easily envision each scientist bringing their unique perspective and proposing ideas for the project’s implementation. Throughout these deliberations, Paolo’s presence lent the meetings a distinctive sense of gravitas. He would sit in attentive silence, absorbing every detail presented. When he spoke, he posed incisive and pertinent questions, articulating the importance of understanding both the techniques being considered and their as-yet-unknown results. He would then thoughtfully synthesize his impressions, offering a measured reflection on how the research could most effectively support the conservation strategy he would ultimately lead.

These extended sessions—followed by systematic visits to the tomb and subsequent discussions—provided all participants, including representatives from the convening institutions, with a clear and shared understanding of the scope and direction of the endeavor. The outcome was a twofold proposal: an emergency stabilization treatment of the wall paintings, and a comprehensive final conservation protocol. Both were formally approved by the GCI and the EAO.

The emergency treatment of the wall paintings commenced in April 1987. Paolo and Laura Mora had assembled a team of young Italian conservators, joined by a British colleague. To this core group, they integrated a smaller number of young Egyptian conservators, with whom they had agreed to share their knowledge and provide hands-on training throughout the process. Referred to affectionately by Laura as “Il Team”, this collective became an integral part of the project—first during the initial emergency campaign in 1987, and subsequently through seven additional campaigns, each lasting three months, conducted between 1988 and 1992.

Paolo and Laura stood at the helm of the conservation effort. Yet they were far more than leaders. Over the course of the six-year project, they acted as diplomats, directors, colleagues, experts, advisors, spokespersons, lecturers, public relations representatives, confidants, mentors, educators, technicians—and in many ways, as the heart and soul of the undertaking.

The project was governed by a strict schedule and a disciplined structure, with clear rules and objectives, established by Paolo and Laura before any participant was invited to contribute. Each member of the team had undergone a meticulous process of interviews and vetting, ensuring that only the most capable and dedicated were selected.

Il Team became a tightly knit group of highly skilled professionals—punctual to a fault, unfailingly courteous, enthusiastic in their work, and deeply respectful of one another. They were united by a shared sense of purpose and wonder at the responsibility they had been entrusted with, and by an eagerness to learn. Their cohesion, efficiency, and dedication were not incidental; they were the result of the careful planning, thoughtful leadership, and constant guidance provided by Paolo and Laura. The photograph shows Queen Nefertari. The incredible transparency of the gown rendered in this painted image on plaster modeling is over 3200 years old.

A typical day began after breakfast, with all members gathering in preparation for the journey across the Nile. Upon arrival at the tomb, equipment and materials were checked and work commenced. Each conservator, clad in spotless white overalls at the start of the day, knew their assigned task. A light lunch was taken outside the tomb, and at day’s end, the group returned together to the hotel.

After a pause for rest and personal preparation, everyone reconvened for dinner—always seated together at one table. Laura, ever elegant, dressed as though for a festive occasion. These meals were considered proper dinner invitations, where appropriate attire was expected and conversation steered away from the day’s work. These evenings were a cherished part of the experience, bringing moments of camaraderie, reflection, and joy.

Each week, one day was reserved for rest and personal time—an opportunity to explore, travel, or simply reflect. The remaining days were wholly devoted to the project, with unwavering focus and shared purpose.

The atmosphere of Il Team was that of a warm and welcoming family. One visitor at the time described the group’s dynamic as being completely in harmony, each person instinctively attuned to the others. During the work periods, Laura proved to be a dedicated and attentive teacher, while Paolo conducted what might be described as a Master Class, offering precise and individualized guidance. Both were entirely accessible to all members of the group—not only to those directly engaged in the conservation of the wall paintings, but also to support staff, including scientists taking measurements, the project photographer who remained throughout the duration of the work, and various visitors from the EAO, as well as leaders from neighboring archaeological and conservation endeavors. This was despite the fact that access to the tomb was rigorously restricted and closely monitored.

At the outset of the first campaign at Nefertari’s tomb, the Department of Antiquities of the Republic of Cyprus had reached out to the J. Paul Getty Museum and the GCI with an urgent concern regarding a significant mosaic near Paphos, known as the Orpheus Mosaic. In accepting the responsibility for this conservation effort, the Institute proposed that the project also serve as a training initiative. The intervention would involve the use of a relatively uncommon rolling technique to detach the mosaic from its support—an ideal opportunity to train conservators from across the Mediterranean in this method. In addition to their work on the mosaic itself, participants would be engaged in exercises addressing various facets of mosaic conservation.

Both the GCI and the Department of Antiquities agreed that Paolo Mora would be the ideal leader for such an endeavor. Paolo graciously accepted and proposed bringing with him two young conservators and the photographer from the Nefertari project.

The photograph shows the state of the mosaic before conservation, with large lacunae and detached borders. The first phase of the mosaic project, which involved rolling and separating the mosaic from its underlying support, took place in the fall of 1988. The second phase, conducted in the spring of 1989, entailed re-installing the mosaic in its original location with a modified support structure; the infilling of lacunae followed later that year.

In addition to the Cypriot conservators and archaeologists, participants in the field project came from Greece, Israel, and Spain. All benefited from the training, amplifying the long-term impact of the course.

Once again, the presence of Paolo Mora was a source of inspiration and admiration. With his characteristic grace and poise, he guided the implementation of this innovative technique, which held significant promise for addressing the many challenges posed by mosaics that had long suffered from physical and chemical stresses due to their environment and exposure to the elements.

As one participant expressed it: “It is a unique privilege to be in the presence of this marvelous mentor.”

I was fortunate enough to visit the Nefertari project twice a year, to meet with the Egyptian authorities and to exchange information with the conservation staff. Aside from observing the progress, Paolo and Laura shared some of the difficulties and discoveries made during the intervention. This was an exceptional personal experience.

The brilliant images of the tomb vividly depict the Queen’s voyage to the hereafter; they rank amongst the most precious and most fragile Egyptian treasures, indeed of humanity. It is a most exquisite gift passed down through more than a hundred generations, a priceless patrimony of our time, yet fragile and in precarious conditions.

Over the centuries, the limestone of the tomb had been fractured by earth movements and is not well suited to painting or carving. During the excavation and preparation of the tomb, the workers applied several layers of plaster to the walls to build a suitable support for the wall paintings. Images and texts were then carved into the plaster and, after being primed by a gypsum wash, the walls could be painted with brilliant colors.

The artists and workers that created this extraordinary monument left behind more than an array of astounding images; they left evidence of their human nature and craft, as Paolo and Laura pointed out to me, describing what they had discovered during their conservation work

Two instances come to mind when I remember our conversations and careful examination of the wall paintings. On the west wall of the descending corridor there is a magnificent depiction of the head of Nefertari. A careful observation of the mouth of the Queen shows how the artists corrected with paint the relief work of the lips – an artistic gesture of care and dedication to ensure that the image corresponded to the artist’s intent, as Laura carefully explained.

The ceiling of the tomb is painted in a color achieved by using a blue over a layer of black. The scientific analyses showed that the blues and greens were compounded from natural copper ores: malachite or azurite. Occasionally these ores were cooked with calcium, quartz or others forms of silica, producing a glass than was then pulverized. These pigments did not always adhere well to the wall or ceiling surface. The black was powdered charcoal. The workers used gum Arabic as a binder, derived from the local acacia trees.

Once the colors were painted unto the ceilings of the tomb, yellow stars, resembling stars, were laid out along parallel lines, snapped onto the ceiling from taut cords dipped in white paint, creating a uniform and ordered texture. The workers held the cords with their thumbs while snapping them. In some instances their white paint covered thumbs left visible thumbprints on the ceiling: their personal identity forever embodied in a tomb that is over 3200 years old, as Paolo told me with an impish smile. The photograph shows the thumbprints of one tomb worker. These are not the only remnants of the workers. Limestone flakes have also been found inscribed with the daily affairs of the workmen.

I could only imagine what being with Paolo and Laura meant to the young conservators working by their side observing and learning over the years of the project.

The Nefertari project continued year after year. “It felt as though Paolo and Laura were the cherished aunt and uncle of the group,” remarked one visitor. After the project concluded, she encountered several members of the conservation team in Rome. Each of them shared how they regarded Laura as somewhat of a surrogate aunt—someone who offered guidance not only on professional matters but also on deeply personal ones. As an example, she helped them navigate how to obtain their parents’ permission to spend three to six months each year working in an Egyptian tomb far from Rome, in the heart of the Valley of the Queens. They trusted her completely, turning to her for advice on work and life alike. Paolo, in turn, was universally admired as a guide and mentor. All agreed that working with Paolo and Laura was and had been a rare and invaluable privilege.

Over the course of this and many other projects, Paolo and Laura Mora came to be recognized for their extraordinary contributions to the conservation of cultural heritage around the world. They earned deep respect for their extensive knowledge, scientific rigor, and technical expertise, as well as for their refined art historical sensibilities and the artistry that informed their work. Their dedication embodied their life-long common passion.

In their daily practice, as well as in their leadership of teams, Paolo and Laura embodied qualities that inspired trust and commanded respect. Through thoughtful dialogue and leading by example, they consistently demonstrated their ability to meet the complex technical and artistic demands of each project. They also showed profound empathy—genuinely caring for the people they worked with, whether fellow conservation professionals, art historians, or administrators in cultural heritage institutions.

Paolo and Laura had a global presence and will continue to be admired today and into the future. Their influence reached dozens of organizations, hundreds of museums and archaeological sites, thousands of students and conservation practitioners, and countless visitors to the projects they led around the world.

In each endeavor, they articulated clear goals and set meaningful aspirations. They defined incentives, provided thoughtful supervision, and developed tangible ways to measure success. Above all, they fostered a shared sense of purpose that aligned with a larger vision. And, beyond their undisputed technical and scientific excellence, they cared deeply about their teams and about authenticity.

Laura, speaking for both herself and Paolo, expressed this sentiment time and again:
“Our greatest joy is that, when people come face to face with our work, we hope they feel that no one has touched the paintings, that they are seeing them just as when they were painted originally and that our intervention as contemporary conservators remains invisible. In this way, the trust placed in us has been truly honored.”

Paolo and Laura Mora received innumerable governmental distinctions, international prizes, honorary diplomas and institutional celebrations. Surrounded by all these well-deserved recognitions, they consistently remained true to their professional calling, anchored in their enduring passion, elegant, serene and, very significantly, imbued with their profound humility. Always an extraordinary example for their colleagues, followers and students around the globe

Today and for all time, the names of Paolo and Laura Mora shall be remembered with profound admiration, reverent respect and cherished thoughts.

Notes

Conservation of the Tomb of Queen Nefertari 1985-1992

The Nefertari Project was initially launched under the auspices of Gamal Moukhtar and Ahmed Kadry of the Egyptian Antiquities Organization and Harold M. Williams and Luis Monreal of The Getty Trust

Directors

Paolo Mora

Laura Sbordoni Mora

Il Team

Conservation Specialists

Lorenza d’Alessandro

Giorgio Capriotti

Luigi de Cesaris

Adamo Franco

Giuseppe Giordano

Adriano Luzi

Paolo Pastorello

Stephen Rickerby

Christina Vazio

Photographer

Guillermo Aldana

Conservation Trainees

Abd el Rady Abd el Moniem

Abd el-Nasser Ahmed

Ahmed Ali Hussein

Lufti Khaled

Gamal Mahgoub

Hussein Mohammed

Sayet A. el-Shahat

Scientific Team

Hideo Arai

Kamal Barakat

Omar el Arini

Farouk el Baz

Eric Doehne

Feisal Abd el Halim Esmael

Gaballa Ali Gaballa

Esam H. Ghanem

Shin Maekawa

Modesto Montoto

Shawki Nakhla

Mohammed Nasr

Frank Preusser

Saleh Ahmed Saleh

Michael Schilling

Mohamed el Sougayar

Wafa Seddia

Logistics Coordinator

Romany Helmi

References

All photos are by Guillermo Aldana

Cecchini, Silvia, (2023) Paolo Emilio Mora in Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, Treccani, Roma vol. 76, pp. 413-418

Corzo, Miguel Angel, ed. (1987) Wall Paintings of the Tomb of Nefertari: Scientific Studies for their Conservation, Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte, Le Caire .

The Conservation of the Orpheus Mosaic at Paphos, Cyprus (1991), The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles.

Corzo, Miguel Angel Corzo and Mahasti Afshar, eds.(1993) Art and Eternity, The Getty Conservation Institute and Egyptian Antiquities Organization, Los Angeles.

Corzo, Miguel Angel ed. (1994) Nefertari: Luce d’Egitto, Leonardo Arte, Roma

Espinosa, Agustín. Personal Communication. May 2025

McDonald, John (1996) House of Eternity: The Tomb of Nefertari, The Getty Conservation Institute and The J. Paul Getty Museum. Los Angeles.

Mencarelli, Giovanna, Paolo Emilio Mora in VI Appendice 2000. Treccani. Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana

Premio Rotondi (2025) Premio Paolo and Laura Mora. 1997. {https://premiorotondi.it/pl-categs/1997/} (accessed on 12 March 2025) (Rotondi 1997)

Bernard Rabin papers (ca.1957-2004), Winterthur Library, OCLC Number 668257429

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